1. SFT
  2. Archiwum
  3. Vol. 66
  4. Cleaning and Decontamination of Firef...

Cleaning and Decontamination of Firefighters’ Protective Clothing in Liquid Carbon Dioxide (LCO₂) – Literature Review and Conclusions for National Practice

Tomasz Krasowski

Download article
Open Access
DOI: 10.12845/sft.66.2.2025.6, pages: 98 – 111

Abstract

Aim: The aim of this work is to provide a synthetic assessment of the effectiveness of available technologies for cleaning and decontaminating firefighters’ protective clothing, with particular emphasis on processes carried out in liquid carbon dioxide (LCO2). The article also demonstrates their impact on user safety and material durability.

Methodology: A systematic review of literature from 2018 to 2024 was conducted, covering scientific publications, technical reports and normative documents on the cleaning and decontamination of firefighters’ protective clothing. The search was conducted in the Scopus, ScienceDirect and PubMed databases and in technical report repositories (UL Solutions, Centexbel, Ghent University), using combinations of keywords related to chemical contaminants (WWA, SVOC, heavy metals), microbiological contaminants (biofilm) and cleaning processes (water washing, hydrocarbon cleaning, LCO2). In the analysis, only studies containing quantitative data or detailed descriptions of cleaning process parameters and tests assessing the impact of cleaning on material properties, such as durable water repellency (DWR), fibre integrity and mechanical parameters, were included. The review covers the results of studies conducted by leading research centres (Centexbel, UL Solutions, Ghent University, North Carolina State University) and an analysis of the requirements of ISO 23616, NFPA 1851 and PN-EN 469 standards in terms of cleaning effectiveness, process validation and maintenance of the functional properties of firefighters’ protective clothing.

Conclusions: The review allows for a comparison of the effectiveness of cleaning and decontamination technologies for firefighters’ protective clothing and identifies their limitations in terms of user safety and material durability. The collected data clearly indicates that water-based technologies often do not provide complete chemical and biological decontamination and may also accelerate the degradation of the materials. Processes carried out in liquid CO2 (LCO2) are highly effective at removing PAHs, SVOCs, heavy metals and biofilm while maintaining the protective properties and durability of materials, making them one of the most promising technologies in the context of maintaining personal protective equipment (PPE) for firefighters. The collected results may support the development of national operating procedures and a certification system for decontamination processes serving the needs of the State Fire Service, the National Fire Service and rescue units operating in industrial plants.

Keywords: decontamination, LCO2, firefighters’ protective clothing, WWA, SVOC, heavy metals, biofilm, ISO 23616, NFPA 1851

Type of article: review article

Bibliography:

  1. IARC, Occupational Exposure as a Firefighter. IARC Monographs on the Identification of Carcinogenic Hazards to Humans, Vol. 132, World Health Organization, Lyon, 2022.
  2. NFPA Research Foundation, Firefighter Exposure and Cancer Risk: A Review of PPE Contamination Studies, Quincy, MA 2022.
  3. Centexbel, Comparative Evaluation of Liquid CO2 Cleaning for Firefighter PPE, Technical Report, Ghent, Belgium 2021.
  4. UL Solutions, Assessment of Firefighter Gear Cleaning Methods: Comparative Study on LCO2 and Water-Based Processes, Research Report, USA, 2022.
  5. Girase A., Thompson D., Ormond R.B., Comparative Analysis of the Liquid CO2 Washing with Conventional Wash on Firefighters’ Personal Protective Equipment (PPE), “Textile”s 2022, 2(4), 624–632, https://doi.org/10.3390/textiles2040036.
  6. North Carolina State University, Wilson College of Textiles. Evaluation of Durability and Contaminant Removal in Firefighter Turnout Gear, Research Summary, 2021.
  7. ISO 23616:2024. – Cleaning, inspection and repair of firefighters' personal protective equipment (PPE).
  8. NFPA 1851:2020. Standard on Selection, Care, and Maintenance of Protective Ensembles for Structural Fire Fighting and Proximity Fire Fighting.
  9. Schuppe F. Untersuchung und Bewertung der Kontamination von PSA der Feuerwehren bei der Brandbekämpfung in Innenräumen, w: Forschungsbericht, Nr. 199, Ständige Konferenz der Innenminister und -senatoren der Länder, Arbeitskreis V. – Ausschuss für Feuerwehrangelegenheiten, Katastrophenschutz und zivile Verteidigung, Institut für Brand- und Katastrophenschutz, Heyrothsberge, 2021.
  10. Ghent University (UGent), Microbial Contamination and Biofilm Formation in Firefighter Protective Clothing: Evaluation of Decontamination Techniques, Laboratory Report, 2022.
  11. PN-EN 469:2021 – Odzież ochronna dla strażaków – Wymagania użytkowe dotyczące odzieży ochronnej przeznaczonej do akcji przeciwpożarowych.
  12. European Chemicals Agency (ECHA), REACH Regulation (EC) No. 1907/2006 – Annex XVII, Official Journal of the European Union, 2024.
  13. OEKO-TEX® Association. Standard 100 Criteria and Limit Values for Textile Products, Zurich, 2023.